Research Papers

Doing research

Throughout your college career, you will probably be asked to write several research papers. Before we discuss research papers, it is helpful to distinguish between research papers and documented essays.

In research papers students search for and use outside sources to support their main argument. These sources are cited within the paper, and publication information about each source or reference is included at the end of the paper in a works cited page (or bibliography).

In documented essays a student uses quotes from one or more sources that he or she has read for a class. As with research papers, these sources are cited within the paper, and publication information about each source is included at the end of the paper in a works cited page.

The sources used in both research papers and documented essays could be either primary (the original work) or secondary (a commentary or criticism of an original work).

How is the process of writing a research paper different from writing any other paper?

The main difference is that for a research paper you must seek and gather information from outside sources. You must rely on more than your personal experiences and opinions for support. However, you will not simply be regurgitating the information you find in an organized manner. You will be expected to take the process one step further and make judgments about the information you find.

The process for writing a research paper can be broken down into four manageable phases.

Phase 1: Searching for a topic and for sources

Arriving at a topic can be a difficult process, if the choice is left to you. Since you will be putting much effort and time into this paper, choose a topic that interests you. Once you pick a topic that interests you, more often than not, you will have to do some preliminary research before you decide on a specific topic. For example, you need to find out:

1. what the scope of the subject is

2. what information is available (ask the librarian about an interlibrary loan if Simpson's library does not contain the information you need)

3. whether you can find the information in the required time, and

4. whether the time required to explore the subject adequately and write your paper corresponds to the time you have.

In addition to choosing a topic that interests you and finding out which sources are available on that topic, it is also important to choose a topic that is not too big, but that is also not too narrow. For example, it would be very difficult to write a three page paper on World War II. People have written volumes and volumes on World War II - it is too big a topic to cover in such a short paper.

In contrast, it might be difficult to write a ten page paper on paper clips. There may not be enough information about paper clips to fill up ten pages effectively. Therefore, make sure you keep in mind the appropriateness of your topic in relationship to the length of your paper.

After you have decided on a topic and done some research to explore your topic, skim through your sources and develop a rough thesis statement (a rough idea of what you will prove in your paper). This thesis statement will guide you in finding information in your sources that is relevent to your paper. Be ready to revise your thesis statement as you continue to research various materials. Once you have a rough thesis statement, you can also jot down some ideas about what the different subtopics of your paper will be.

Phase 2: reading sources and reaching conclusions

After you have constructed a reasonable thesis statement and have attained a sufficient number of sources, you will then be able to take notes using your sources that will relate to the thesis statement of your paper and your various subtopics.

Again, your thesis is apt to change with further research. When you have completed your research, make sure your thesis statement reflects the full scope of your research paper.

Note: Keep in mind that not all sources provide high quality information. Don't believe everything you read in your sources (including everything you see on web pages!); instead try to determine (by learning about the author's background, the publisher, etc.) whether or not the source is providing valid information. If you are unsure about whether a source is providing valid information, ask a librarian for assistance.

Phase 3: Writing the paper

Using a rough preliminary outline as a guide, arrange your notes into a sensible order. Create a more precise statement of your thesis. Revise your outline as you go so you have a visual representation of your paper's organizational structure to work from.

As you begin to write using your outline, remember that writing a research paper is a lengthy process. It is not something that can be done overnight. Allow yourself enough time to construct at least three drafts: (1) a rough version, concentrating on the flow of thought; (2) a first version, reorganizing the paper and improving the style, and (3) a second version, eliminating all mechanical errors. You may also want to ask a friend to look over your paper for errors. After you have worked with a paper for a great length of time, it is easy to overlook mistakes.

Phase 4: Preparing the final draft

Following the correct structural format, prepare the list of works cited (or bibliography), showing all the sources that contributed information to the paper (books, periodicals, interviews, television productions, etc.). The format of your bibliography will depend upon which form of citation you are required to use (MLA, APA, or Turabian). You also need to make sure that you are citing information within your paper correctly. If you are unsure about which form of citation is required for your paper, ask your professor. For more information about these different citation methods, pick up the free handouts available at the Hawley Academic Resource Center or downstairs in Dunn Library.

Note: After you have looked over your paper for mechanical errors and created a works cited pag , it is often a good idea to make two copies of your paper, one for your professors and one for yourself. This will safeguard you in case of accidental loss. You may also want to save your paper on more than one disk to safeguard against computer viruses or crashes.

Citing sources

Once students have chosen a topic for a research paper, have researched their topic, and have begun writing, their next concern is often how to cite the information that they want to use within their paper. The most important thing to remember about citing sources is that you must give credit to the sources you are using whether you are taking the information word-for-word (a direct quote) or just paraphrasing (putting the information in your own words for an indirect quote). You also need to provide the proper citation when you are summarizing information from an outside source (stating in your own words information from a source briefly but concisely).

Another important part of citing sources is to be aware of when you are over-using outside information in your writing. For example, some students write papers in which almost every sentence is a direct or an indirect quote. There is nothing in a paper like this that is contributed by the student. The point of a research paper is not just to provide a lot of information through outside sources, but to analyze that information and comment upon it. You need to include your own opinions, observations, and analysis in your research papers; otherwise, there would be no point in someone reading your paper - he or she could just go to your outside sources and get the same information.

To stop yourself from over-using outside sources, keep this simple rule of thumb in mind: For every line of a direct or indirect quote that you use, have at least one line of your own commentary or analysis regarding that quote. For example, if you have a quote that is three lines long, have at least three lines of your own writing in which you comment on that quote. This way the reader knows (A) that you understand what the quote means and (B) that you are using the quote for a reason, not just to take up space.

Plagiarism

Definition: Plagiarism is the intentional or unintentional use of other people's ideas without giving them proper credit. It is academic theft.

Examples of plagiarism:

1. Using another person's exact words without using quotation marks and the proper citation (a footnote or parenthetical citation, depending on the form preferred by the professor).

2. Using another person's ideas, even if not their exact words, without providing a citation.

3. Using all or parts of another student's paper without providing proper citations.

4. Rewriting passages with only the most minor of changes and passing them off as original or merely paraphrased thoughts.

5. Citing quotes or paraphrases from made-up sources (technically not plagiarism, but still dishonest).

How to avoid plagiarism:

1. When you borrow someone's exact words:

Put any word-for-word quotes in quotation marks, and provide a proper citation, either a parenthetical note, an endnote, or a footnote - whichever your professor prefers.

2. When you borrow someone's ideas but put them in your own words:

Do not use quotation marks, but do use the proper citation (parenthetical note, endnote, or footnote) at the end of the idea.

If the idea is more than one sentence long, you can also mark where it begins by saying something like "According to Johnson" or "Gonzales and Higgens argue . . ." and end the paraphrase with the page numbers the information came from (15-16).

3. In general:

Your readers should be able to identify the source of each sentence you have written. If you haven't indicated any other source, they'll assume it's your words and thoughts.

Penalties for plagiarism:

According to the Simpson catalog, "the penalty for any form of substantiated academic dishonesty such as cheating or plagiarism or collaboration in the same shall be the failure of the course." If you have any questions about plagiarism, ask your instructor or call the Hawley Academic Resource Center (961-1524).

Common Questions About and Exceptions to Plagiarism Guidelines

Q: So, do I need a citation after every sentence?

A: No. If you have 2-4 sentences in a row paraphrased from one author, you can mark the beginning with a tag like "According to" and the end with a citation. Do not simply put the citation information at the end of the paragraph; this way the reader won't know where your paraphrase begins. If you have more than 4 sentences in a row, you might want to add another tag like "Johnson continues." If you often have this problem (whether in paraphrases or direct quotes), it's a sign that you're over-relying on your sources--not integrating them with other sources or your own ideas. Perhaps you need to do some rethinking and rewriting.

Q: What if I use an author's words for just part of a sentence? Do I still need quotation marks?

A: Though there isn't an exact rule, most people feel you should use quotation marks in a phrase with at least 3-5 words. However, even ONE word, if it's catchy or an original term from the author cited, could be quoted.

Professors often like to see students quoting phrases rather than whole sentences because it indicates that the writer understands the source well enough to integrate it with his/her own ideas. Quoting whole sentences or several sentences in a row is acceptable, but overdoing it is another sign that you need to do some rethinking and rewriting.

Q: What if I already knew something and then saw it in a source? Do I need to cite it anyway?

A: You have just come across the "common knowledge" exception to plagiarism. If you think an idea is common knowledge (like a historic date), you do not need to cite it. Some people say that if you see the same idea in three or more sources it's common knowledge. However, if you use an author's exact wording or individual twist on common knowledge, you should cite it anyway. The common knowledge exception is always a judgment call, so--when in doubt--ask your professor or cite it anyway.

Q: What if I found a new idea in two different sources?

A: If you use exact words, you should cite only that source. If you paraphrase a combination of both, you can include both in the citation.

Q: What if I got the idea from a lecture, interview, TV show, or record (or some other unpublished source)?

A: You need to give credit to others even if their idea has never appeared in written form. The documentation handouts or handbooks available at the Hawley Academic Resource Center explain how to cite these sources correctly. Also remember that if you were able to record an exact quote, put it in quotation marks.

Note: While citing sources can seem confusing, keep this simple rule of thumb in mind: When in doubt, cite the information anyway! It is much better to overcite information within a paper than to not provide citations for information when you should have.


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Research Papers Doing research Throughout your college career, you will probably be asked to write several research papers. Before we discuss research papers, it is helpful to distinguish between research papers and documented essays. In research papers students search for and use outside sources to support their main argument. These sources are cited within the paper, and publication information about each source or reference is included at the end of the paper in a works cited page (or bibliography). In documented essays a student uses quotes from one or more sources that he or she has read for a class. As with research papers, these sources are cited within the paper, and publication information about each source is included at the end of the paper in a works cited page. The sources used in both research papers and documented essays could be either primary (the original work) or secondary (a commentary or criticism of an original work). How is the process of writing a research paper different from writing any other paper? The main difference is that for a research paper you must seek and gather information from outside sources. You must rely on more than your personal experiences and opinions for support. However, you will not simply be regurgitating the information you find in an organized manner. You will be expected to take the process one step further and make judgments about the information you find. The process for writing a research paper can be broken down into four manageable phases. Phase 1: Searching for a topic and for sources Arriving at a topic can be a difficult process, if the choice is left to you. Since you will be putting much effort and time into this paper, choose a topic that interests you. Once you pick a topic that interests you, more often than not, you will have to do some preliminary research before you decide on a specific topic. For example, you need to find out: 1. what the scope of the subject is 2. what information is available (ask the librarian about an interlibrary loan if Simpson's library does not contain the information you need) 3. whether you can find the information in the required time, and 4. whether the time required to explore the subject adequately and write your paper corresponds to the time you have. In addition to choosing a topic that interests you and finding out which sources are available on that topic, it is also important to choose a topic that is not too big, but that is also not too narrow. For example, it would be very difficult to write a three page paper on World War II. People have written volumes and volumes on World War II - it is too big a topic to cover in such a short paper. In contrast, it might be difficult to write a ten page paper on paper clips. There may not be enough information about paper clips to fill up ten pages effectively. Therefore, make sure you keep in mind the appropriateness of your topic in relationship to the length of your paper. After you have decided on a topic and done some research to explore your topic, skim through your sources and develop a rough thesis statement (a rough idea of what you will prove in your paper). This thesis statement will guide you in finding information in your sources that is relevent to your paper. Be ready to revise your thesis statement as you continue to research various materials. Once you have a rough thesis statement, you can also jot down some ideas about what the different subtopics of your paper will be. Phase 2: reading sources and reaching conclusions After you have constructed a reasonable thesis statement and have attained a sufficient number of sources, you will then be able to take notes using your sources that will relate to the thesis statement of your paper and your various subtopics. Again, your thesis is apt to change with further research. When you have completed your research, make sure your thesis statement reflects the full scope of your research paper. Note: Keep in mind that not all sources provide high quality information. Don't believe everything you read in your sources (including everything you see on web pages!); instead try to determine (by learning about the author's background, the publisher, etc.) whether or not the source is providing valid information. If you are unsure about whether a source is providing valid information, ask a librarian for assistance. Phase 3: Writing the paper Using a rough preliminary outline as a guide, arrange your notes into a sensible order. Create a more precise statement of your thesis. Revise your outline as you go so you have a visual representation of your paper's organizational structure to work from. As you begin to write using your outline, remember that writing a research paper is a lengthy process. It is not something that can be done overnight. Allow yourself enough time to construct at least three drafts: (1) a rough version, concentrating on the flow of thought; (2) a first version, reorganizing the paper and improving the style, and (3) a second version, eliminating all mechanical errors. You may also want to ask a friend to look over your paper for errors. After you have worked with a paper for a great length of time, it is easy to overlook mistakes. Phase 4: Preparing the final draft Following the correct structural format, prepare the list of works cited (or bibliography), showing all the sources that contributed information to the paper (books, periodicals, interviews, television productions, etc.). The format of your bibliography will depend upon which form of citation you are required to use (MLA, APA, or Turabian). You also need to make sure that you are citing information within your paper correctly. If you are unsure about which form of citation is required for your paper, ask your professor. For more information about these different citation methods, pick up the free handouts available at the Hawley Academic Resource Center or downstairs in Dunn Library. Note: After you have looked over your paper for mechanical errors and created a works cited pag , it is often a good idea to make two copies of your paper, one for your professors and one for yourself. This will safeguard you in case of accidental loss. You may also want to save your paper on more than one disk to safeguard against computer viruses or crashes. Citing sources Once students have chosen a topic for a research paper, have researched their topic, and have begun writing, their next concern is often how to cite the information that they want to use within their paper. The most important thing to remember about citing sources is that you must give credit to the sources you are using whether you are taking the information word-for-word (a direct quote) or just paraphrasing (putting the information in your own words for an indirect quote). You also need to provide the proper citation when you are summarizing information from an outside source (stating in your own words information from a source briefly but concisely). Another important part of citing sources is to be aware of when you are over-using outside information in your writing. For example, some students write papers in which almost every sentence is a direct or an indirect quote. There is nothing in a paper like this that is contributed by the student. The point of a research paper is not just to provide a lot of information through outside sources, but to analyze that information and comment upon it. You need to include your own opinions, observations, and analysis in your research papers; otherwise, there would be no point in someone reading your paper - he or she could just go to your outside sources and get the same information. To stop yourself from over-using outside sources, keep this simple rule of thumb in mind: For every line of a direct or indirect quote that you use, have at least one line of your own commentary or analysis regarding that quote. For example, if you have a quote that is three lines long, have at least three lines of your own writing in which you comment on that quote. This way the reader knows (A) that you understand what the quote means and (B) that you are using the quote for a reason, not just to take up space. Plagiarism Definition: Plagiarism is the intentional or unintentional use of other people's ideas without giving them proper credit. It is academic theft. Examples of plagiarism: 1. Using another person's exact words without using quotation marks and the proper citation (a footnote or parenthetical citation, depending on the form preferred by the professor). 2. Using another person's ideas, even if not their exact words, without providing a citation. 3. Using all or parts of another student's paper without providing proper citations. 4. Rewriting passages with only the most minor of changes and passing them off as original or merely paraphrased thoughts. 5. Citing quotes or paraphrases from made-up sources (technically not plagiarism, but still dishonest). How to avoid plagiarism: 1. When you borrow someone's exact words: Put any word-for-word quotes in quotation marks, and provide a proper citation, either a parenthetical note, an endnote, or a footnote - whichever your professor prefers. 2. When you borrow someone's ideas but put them in your own words: Do not use quotation marks, but do use the proper citation (parenthetical note, endnote, or footnote) at the end of the idea. If the idea is more than one sentence long, you can also mark where it begins by saying something like "According to Johnson" or "Gonzales and Higgens argue . . ." and end the paraphrase with the page numbers the information came from (15-16). 3. In general: Your readers should be able to identify the source of each sentence you have written. If you haven't indicated any other source, they'll assume it's your words and thoughts. Penalties for plagiarism: According to the Simpson catalog, "the penalty for any form of substantiated academic dishonesty such as cheating or plagiarism or collaboration in the same shall be the failure of the course." If you have any questions about plagiarism, ask your instructor or call the Hawley Academic Resource Center (961-1524). Common Questions About and Exceptions to Plagiarism Guidelines Q: So, do I need a citation after every sentence? A: No. If you have 2-4 sentences in a row paraphrased from one author, you can mark the beginning with a tag like "According to" and the end with a citation. Do not simply put the citation information at the end of the paragraph; this way the reader won't know where your paraphrase begins. If you have more than 4 sentences in a row, you might want to add another tag like "Johnson continues." If you often have this problem (whether in paraphrases or direct quotes), it's a sign that you're over-relying on your sources--not integrating them with other sources or your own ideas. Perhaps you need to do some rethinking and rewriting. Q: What if I use an author's words for just part of a sentence? Do I still need quotation marks? A: Though there isn't an exact rule, most people feel you should use quotation marks in a phrase with at least 3-5 words. However, even ONE word, if it's catchy or an original term from the author cited, could be quoted. Professors often like to see students quoting phrases rather than whole sentences because it indicates that the writer understands the source well enough to integrate it with his/her own ideas. Quoting whole sentences or several sentences in a row is acceptable, but overdoing it is another sign that you need to do some rethinking and rewriting. Q: What if I already knew something and then saw it in a source? Do I need to cite it anyway? A: You have just come across the "common knowledge" exception to plagiarism. If you think an idea is common knowledge (like a historic date), you do not need to cite it. Some people say that if you see the same idea in three or more sources it's common knowledge. However, if you use an author's exact wording or individual twist on common knowledge, you should cite it anyway. The common knowledge exception is always a judgment call, so--when in doubt--ask your professor or cite it anyway. Q: What if I found a new idea in two different sources? A: If you use exact words, you should cite only that source. If you paraphrase a combination of both, you can include both in the citation. Q: What if I got the idea from a lecture, interview, TV show, or record (or some other unpublished source)? A: You need to give credit to others even if their idea has never appeared in written form. The documentation handouts or handbooks available at the Hawley Academic Resource Center explain how to cite these sources correctly. Also remember that if you were able to record an exact quote, put it in quotation marks. Note: While citing sources can seem confusing, keep this simple rule of thumb in mind: When in doubt, cite the information anyway! It is much better to overcite information within a paper than to not provide citations for information when you should have.
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